Category: Nutrients Glossary

Cysteine is an amino acid that is used by the body in enzymatic reactions. Despite not being an essential amino-acid, cysteine is extremely important for health — particularly for the elderly and infants.(Ames, 2000)
When cysteine is consumed, the body transforms it into a powerful antioxidant, which can protect cells from free radicals as well as side effects caused by drug reactions or toxic chemicals. The compound can also be used as an adjuvant in the treatment of diseases like bronchitis or chronic obstructive pulmonary disease.
Cysteine is an amino acid — a building block of proteins that are used throughout the body. One such protein is hair keratin. Of all the amino acids that make up hair keratin, cysteine is used most. In other words, hair is made largely of cysteine.
Hair Loss and Cysteine
Recent studies have suggested that a diet poor in cysteine or various health problems causing malabsorption of cysteine might be one a cause of hair loss.
The amount of cysteine in a hair fibre is an indictor of the hairs health. (J Cell Biol. 1990) In various animals, cysteine, along with other amino-acids and proteins, can protect hair and feathers and help them establish mechanical resilience. (Strasser et al., 2015)
Cysteine is considered to be one of the main factors involved in hair growth
One study showed that the l-cysteine is an important hair component and may be linked with alopecia and influence the mechanisms that are involved in the hair loss process. The study was done on mice which were exposed to a smoking machine (in a previous study the researchers created a smoked induced alopecia).
The groups of mice received three dose levels of l-cysteine and vitamin B6 daily. Vitamin B6 was used due to its important role in incorporating l-cysteine in hair cells. After 6 months of exposure, the results showed that mice receiving the most l-cysteine/vitamin B6 doses had less hair loss, concluding that oral administration of vitamin B6 and l-cysteine may be an effective preventive treatment in alopecia. (D’Agostini et al., 2007)
the treatment group had remarkable results with their anagen rate
Another study suggests that l-cysteine prevents the reduction in keratin synthesis induced by iron deficiency in human keratinocytes. It seems that l-cysteine promotes an important up regulation of keratins expression in the de novo protein synthesis and it counteracts the adverse effect of iron deficiency in keratin expression. (Miniaci et al., 2016)
Significant positive results
In a paper regarding evidence based guidelines in the treatment of alopecia for both women and men (Blumeyer et al.), various amino acids are mentioned with a special mention for cysteine. Cysteine is considered to be one of the main factors involved in hair growth.
The group that also followed the dietary supplement had a 50% increase in hair growth
The paper cites a study (Morganti et al.) where there was a significant mean change of total hair count in both male and female patients after a treatment containing cysteine.
The participants had to take an oral supplement that contained cysteine, copper, zinc and histidine 4 times a day for 50 weeks and the treatment group had remarkable results with their anagen rate.
The Morganti study results regarding the influence of cysteine on hair growth were very promising. 48 volunteers with ages between 21 and 38 years old participated in the study. 12 of the subjects were asked to take a diet supplement based on cysteine as well as a solution made with serenoa repens, also known as saw palmetto.
One group used both while the control group only used the lotion. At the end of the 50 weeks of treatment, the results showed an increase of hair mass from 20% to up to 30% as well as an increase in hair number up to 27%. The group that also followed the dietary supplement had a 50% increase in hair growth.

References

Ames BN. Micronutrient deficiencies: A major cause of DNA damage. Ann NY Acad Sci. 2000;889:87-106.
H.-D. Belitz, Werner Grosch, Peter Schieberle, Food Chemistry, 2009
Structure and expression of genes for a class of cysteine-rich proteins of the cuticle layers of differentiating wool and hair follicles. (1990). The Journal of Cell Biology, 111(6), 2587–2600. Link: http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC2116416/
Strasser B, Mlitz V, Hermann M, Tschachler E, Eckhart L. Convergent evolution of cysteine-rich proteins in feathers and hair. BMC Evolutionary Biology. 2015;15:82. doi:10.1186/s12862-015-0360-y. Link: http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC4423139/
Francesco D’Agostini, Paolo Fiallo, Tanya M. Pennisi, Silvio De Flora, Chemoprevention of smoke-induced alopecia in mice by oral administration of l-cysteine and vitamin B6, Journal of Dermatological Science, Volume 46, Issue 3, June 2007, Pages 189-198, ISSN 0923-1811, http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.jdermsci.2007.02.005.
Miniaci, M. C., Irace, C., Capuozzo, A., Piccolo, M., Di Pascale, A., Russo, A., Lippiello, P., Lepre, F., Russo, G. and Santamaria, R. (2016), Cysteine Prevents the Reduction in Keratin Synthesis Induced by Iron Deficiency in Human Keratinocytes. J. Cell. Biochem., 117: 402–412. doi:10.1002/jcb.25286
Anja Blumeyer, Antonella Tosti, Andrew Messenger, Pascal Reygagne, Veronique Del Marmol, Phyllis I Spuls, Myrto Trakatelli, Andreas Finner, Franklin Kiesewetter, Ralph Trüeb, Berthold Rzany, Ulrike Blume-Peytavi, Evidence-based (S3) guideline for the treatment of androgenetic alopecia in women and in men. J Dtsch Dermatol Ges. 2011 Oct;9 Suppl 6:S1-57. doi: 10.1111/j.1610-0379.2011.07802.x. Link: http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/21980982
P. Morganti, Fabrizi G, James B, et al. “Effect of Gelatin-Cysteine and Serenoa Repens Extract on Free Radicals Level and Hair Growth,†Journal of Applied Cosmetology, 1998;16:57-64.” 

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Androgenic alopecia (AGA), also called male-pattern baldness, is the most common form of hair loss and has been associated with other dysfunctions such as coronary heart disease and an enlarged prostate.

It seems that PGD2 prevents the hair follicles from maturing

There have been numerous studies concerning androgenic alopecia but more data is needed to clearly establish a true underlying cause — the thing the differentiates those with a predisposition from those without.

In 2012, the University of Pennsylvania published a breakthrough study concluding that PGD2 was found in higher levels than normal on the scalp of balding men. It seems that PGD2 prevents the hair follicles from maturing. This means that the PGD2 inhibits the follicles from growing hair. In mice studies with explanted hair, when PGD2 was applied topically, it clearly inhibited hair growth. PGD2 causes alopecia when it binds to a receptor called GPR33; when activated by high levels of PGD2 the receptor inhibits hair growth. (Garza et al., 2012)
There are, however, supplements that are considered PGD2 blockers
There are many products marketed for hair loss prevention — some contain substances to improve circulation in the scalp, others contain DHT blockers.
Since PGD2’s relation to hair loss is a recent discovery, there haven’t been many products on the market to address this particular issue. There are, however, supplements that are considered PGD2 blockers and could be used by those experiencing hair loss.
A study has analysed the 289 constituents of 12 selected herbs to see whether they would work as PTG2 inhibitors. The properties were analysed for skin permeability, sensitisation, irritation, corrosion, mutagenicity, tumorigenicity and reproductive effects. Although many were found to have PGD2 inhibition, many caused adverse reaction and also poor skin permeability. Among them, ricinoleic acid, acteorside, amentoflavone, quercetin and hinokiflavone were good inhibitors with minimal adverse skin reactions (Fong et al., 2015) and may be safe and efficient for hair loss treatments. But, without further studies regarding their efficacy in hair loss treatment or at least new research confirming their effect on PGD2, some of the inhibitors presented above remain a mystery.
Fortunately, there are other PGD2 inhibitors that may have the answer to our hair loss problem, at least with more research behind them to support their effect as inhibitors.
Studies on PGD2 Inhibitors
1. Eicosapentaenoic acid
Eicosapentaenoic acid is an omega-3 fatty acid that has been known to inhibit PGD2. It is a polyunsaturated fatty acid that reduces PGD2 generation in response to IgE-anti-IgE challenge incubation. It is also suggested that endogenous EPA diet supplementation might reduce PGD2 production. (Obata et al., 1999) It is contained in various oily fish and fish oil such as cod liver, herring, mackerel, salmon, menhaden and sardine, as well as seaweed and phytoplankton. (Natural Medicines Database, 2016)
2. Resveratrol

Resveratrol is a naturally occurring phytoalexin that is produced by some spermatophytes such as grapevines, in response to injury. It can be found in small traces in white wine, but it’s more abundant in red wine. There are other fruits and oils that contain minimal traces of resveratrol. It is a known antioxidant and has been shown to modulate the metabolism of lipids and inhibit the oxidation of low-density lipoproteins and aggregation of platelets. (Fremont, 2000)
A study in 2014 and one in 2016 concluded that resveratrol suppresses PGD2-stimulated OPG synthesis through inhibiting p38 MAP kinase and SAPK/JNK in osteoblasts (Kuroyanagi, Gen et al., 2014), as well as the fact that Resveratrol as a therapeutic agent could inhibit PGD2-mediated inflammation. (Devon et al., 2016)
3. Quercetin

Quercetin is a pigment, also known as a flavonoid, which gives plants their colours. Flavonoids are antioxidants and are known for their neutralizing effects against free radicals. (Boots, Haenen and Bast, 2008) There are several studies showing that Quercetin is effective in reducing PGD2.
A study published in 2012 on contact dermatitis and photosensitivity argued that Quercetin can effectively inhibit secretion of histamine and PGD2. When compared to Cromolyn, Quercetin significantly decreased contact dermatitis and photosensitivity and was argued to be a promising candidate as an effective mast cell inhibitor through sufficient oral absorption. (Weng et al., 2012)
Another study supports these claims as it concluded that Quercetin can eliminate erythema and burning due to niacin in patients with coronary artery disease by inhibiting PGD2. (Kalogeromitros et al., 2008)
There is also treatment model for alopecia areata with quercetin based on studies in mice. The mice were treated with subcutaneous quercetin and hair regrowth was observed in lesional areas. The study also showed that a systematic delivery of quercetin through intraperitoneal injections prevented and reduced spontaneous onset of alopecia areata. (Wikramanayake et al., 2012)
Quercetin is found in various foods, from broccoli, berries, apples to tea and red wine. It can also be added as a dietary supplement. (Erdman et al., 2007)
4. Cromolyn
Cromolyn sodium is an anti-inflammatory medication used for asthma. Cromolyn is also a PGD2 inhibitor, however, not as good as Quercetin, according to a study in 2012. (Weng et al., 2012)
5. Luteolin
Just as other flavonoids in this list, Luteolin has been found to inhibit PGD2 in various studies. A study involving niacin induced skin temperature shows that the increase in temperature is associated with PGD2 and 5-ht elevations. Rats that received Luteolin had levels of PGD2 and 5-ht inhibited by 100 and 67%, respectively. (Papaliodis et al., 2009)
Another study published in 2000 in Clinical & Experimental Allergy Journal (Kimata et al.,) supports the same findings showing that luteolin and quercetin are potent inhibitors in the release of histamine, leukotrienes, PGD2 and GM-CSF from HCMC in a concentration-dependent manner.
Topical application or dietary supplement
Studies suggest that some flavonoids such as quercetin could be used effectively as topical medication rather than supplements, so that people experiencing hair loss could benefit from an increased effect. When it comes to skin conditions quercetin is efficient in inflammatory skin diseases (Caddeo et al., 2014) as well as to control UVB-mediated oxidative damage of the skin (Casagrande et al.,), so topical application of these flavonoids might be more efficient than using them as dietary supplements. In alopecia areata, subcutaneous injections showed induced hair regrowth in preexisting alopecic lesions (in mice). (Wikramanayake et al., 2012)
Future research and FDA approved medication
Although these PGD2 inhibitors have been shown to work, their full effect is not known since there aren’t many clinical trials on humans regarding their effect on hair loss. Fortunately, for those waiting for approved medication for their conditions, a new drug, called Setipiprant, currently under clinical trial should be released in the next years. The drug was initially researched for treatment of allergies and inflammatory disorders such as asthmas but was discontinued. In the light of new research concerning PGD2 inhibitor and male pattern baldness, the medication is now in trial. (2016, http://www.kythera.com/products/kyth-105-setipiprant/ )

References

Krupa Shankar, D., Chakravarthi, M., & Shilpakar, RMale Androgenetic Alopecia: Population-Based Study in 1,005 Subjects.International Journal of Trichology, 1(2), 131–133. (2009) http://doi.org/10.4103/0974-7753.58556 Link: http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC2938575/
Garza LA, Liu Y, Yang Z, et al., Prostaglandin D2 Inhibits Hair Growth and Is Elevated in Bald Scalp of Men with Androgenetic Alopecia. Science Translational Medicine. 2012;4(126):126ra34. doi:10.1126/scitranslmed.3003122. Link: http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC3319975/
Fong P, Tong HH, Ng KH, Lao CK, Chong CI, Chao CM, In silico prediction of prostaglandin D2 synthase inhibitors from herbal constituents for the treatment of hair loss. Journal of Ethnopharmacology, 2015, Dec 4;175:470-80. doi: 10.1016/j.jep.2015.10.005 Link: http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/26456343
Obata T., Nagakura T., Masaki T., Maekawa K., Yamashita K. Eicosapentaenoic acid inhibits prostaglandin D2 generation by inhibiting cyclo-oxygenase-2 in cultured human mast cells. Clin. Exp. Allergy. 1999;29:1129–1135. doi: 10.1046/j.1365-2222.1999.00604.x. Link: http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/10457118
Eicosapentaenoic acid – Natural Medicines Comprehensive Database Link: http://naturaldatabase.therapeuticresearch.com/nd/Search.aspx?cs=&s=ND&pt=100&id=994&fs=ND&searchid=57146335
Fremont Lucie, Biological effects of resveratrol, Life Sciences Volume 66, Issue 8, 14 January 2000, Pages 663-673 Link: http://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S0024320599004105
Gen Kuroyanagi, Jun Mizutani, Akira Kondo, Naohiro Yamamoto, Rie Matsushima-Nishiwaki, Takanobu Otsuka, Osamu Kozawa, Haruhiko Tokuda, Suppression by resveratrol of prostaglandin D2-stimulated osteoprotegerin synthesis in osteoblasts Prostaglandins, Leukotrienes and Essential Fatty Acids ,2014 Volume 91 , Issue 3 , 73 – 80 Link: http://www.plefa.com/article/S0952-3278(14)00072-6/abstract
Devon Shirley, Cody McHale, Gregorio Gomez, Resveratrol preferentially inhibits IgE-dependent PGD2 biosynthesis but enhances TNF production from human skin mast cells, Biochimica et Biophysica Acta (BBA) – General Subjects, Volume 1860, Issue 4, April 2016, Pages 678-685, ISSN 0304-4165, http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.bbagen.2016.01.006. Link: http://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S0304416516000155
Agnes W. Boots, Guido R.M.M. Haenen, Aalt Bast, Health effects of quercetin: From antioxidant to nutraceutical., European Journal of Pharmacology, Volume 585, Issues 2–3, 13 May 2008, Pages 325-337, ISSN 0014-2999, http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.ejphar.2008.03.008.Link: http://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S0014299908002884
Weng Z, Zhang B, Asadi S, Sismanopoulos N, Butcher A, Fu X, et al., (2012) Quercetin Is More Effective than Cromolyn in Blocking Human Mast Cell Cytokine Release and Inhibits Contact Dermatitis and Photosensitivity in Humans. PLoS ONE 7(3): e33805. doi:10.1371/journal.pone.0033805 Link: http://journals.plos.org/plosone/article?id=10.1371%2Fjournal.pone.0033805
D. Kalogeromitros, M. Makris, C. Chliva, X. Aggelides, D. Kempuraj, T. C. Theoharides, A quercetin containing supplement reduces niacin-induced flush in humans, Int J Immunopathol Pharmacol. 2008 Jul-Sep; 21(3): 509–514. Link: http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/18831918
Erdman JW, Jr, Balentine D, Arab L, Beecher G, Dwyer JT, Folts J, Harnly J, Hollman P, Keen CL, Mazza G, Messina M, Scalbert A, Vita J, Williamson G, Burrowes J. Flavonoids and heart health: proceedings of the ILSI North America Flavonoids Workshop. J Nutr. 2007;137:718S–737S. Link: http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/17311968
Wikramanayake, T. C., Villasante, A. C., Mauro, L. M., Perez, C. I., Schachner, L. A., & Jimenez, J. J. (2012). Prevention and treatment of alopecia areata with quercetin in the C3H/HeJ mouse model. Cell Stress & Chaperones, 17(2), 267–274. http://doi.org/10.1007/s12192-011-0305-3
Papaliodis, D., Boucher, W., Kempuraj, D. and Theoharides, T. C. (2008), The flavonoid luteolin inhibits niacin-induced flush. British Journal of Pharmacology, 153: 1382–1387. doi: 10.1038/sj.bjp.0707668 Link: http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC2437911/
Kimata, Shichijo, Miura, Serizawa, Inagaki and Nagai (2000), Effects of luteolin, quercetin and baicalein on immunoglobulin E-mediated mediator release from human cultured mast cells. Clinical & Experimental Allergy, 30: 501–508. doi:10.1046/j.1365-2222.2000.00768.x http://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/10.1046/j.1365-2222.2000.00768.x/abstract

KYTH-105 (setipiprant)

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Taurine, also known as 2- aminoethanesulfonic acid, is an organic compound that can be found in animal tissue and has a vital function in both animals and humans.
Its primary biological roles in humans are:

to conjugate bile acids;
osmoregulation;
antioxidation; and
modulation of calcium signalling

Taurine has been proved beneficial for regulating blood pressure and vasoactivity
Taurine is found in the brain, heart and blood cells called platelets and it’s considered a conditional amino acid which means that it is produced by the body. (Schuller-Levis and Park, 2003)
Taurine Benefits
There is clear research showing that taurine supplementation has benefits in various medical fields.
Taurine has been proven beneficial for:

regulating blood pressure and vasoactivity;
it’s neuroprotective role (Frye et al., 2013);
Beneficial effects on high blood pressure ( El Idrissi et al.2013)
Benefecial effects on high cholesterol (Wójcik et al., 2009, 2012),
improving seizures and autism (Ghanizadeh, 2013), and
improving mental performance (Seidl, 2000)

Other studies show that there are increased health benefits when it comes to congestive heart failure and taurine supplements may improve or even treat this condition or other heart related conditions. It’s important to state that taurine could also serve as a great preventative and adjuvant in treatments for people predisposed to any of the conditions above. (Xu et al., 2008)
How is Taurine linked to Hair Regrowth?
The observations concluded that taurine protects the hair follicle from the effects of (TGF)-β1 as well as promoting hair survival
There are several studies showing the benefits of taurine on hair growth and overall health, as well as its connection with the hair’s natural growing cycle.
One study in 2013 (Kim et al.) describes alopecia as a modern malady that is aggravated by stress due to the changing socio-economic conditions we are living.
Researchers studied the effects of taurine against alopecia that has been caused by various chemical stress agents. There was a positive response when taurine was added and it allowed better stress recovery. The study concludes that there is strong evidence showing how taurine can help with alopecia, especially when used with other treatments that reduce hair loss.
Another study conducted in 2008 (Collin et al.) analyses taurine in relation to (TGF)-β — a protein that may cause hair loss. Taurine is involved in many physiological functions among which the immunomodulatory and antifibrotic functions. The researchers used taurine on in-vitro hair follicles. The observations concluded that taurine protects the hair follicle from the effects of (TGF)-β1 as well as promoting hair survival.

besides being an important element in brain and retinal development, taurine has a great anti-inflammatory and antioxidant effect

The (TGF)-β1 is a protein that performs various functions such as cell growth, cell proliferation, cell differentiation, etc.; it also plays an important role in the fibrosis of hair follicle and its growth.
There is further research that shows how (TGF)-β1 is linked to androgenetic alopecia as an important factor in hair growth. This particular study concludes that (TGF)-β1 derived from DPCs mediates hair growth suppression in AGA. (Kim et al.,2013)
Taurine as an anti-inflammatory
Taurine’s anti-inflammatory effect might also help reduce inflammation, thus helping those with scarring alopecia as well as micro inflammation that is due to external factors. In fact it’s thought that inflammation plays a major role in male pattern hair loss, caused by DHT.
A study in 2013 (Kim et al.) concluded that besides being an important element in brain and retinal development, taurine has a great anti-inflammatory and antioxidant effect. The study also shows that taurine inhibits the pro inflammatory mediators resulting from TLR9 activation. This may help researchers find treatment and even a cure for conditions like alopecia areata, psoriasis, vitiligo or other autoimmune conditions.
Hibino & Nishiyama argue that hair loss can be easily prevented by understanding how DHT stimulates synthesis of (TGF)-β1 in derma papilla cells. (TGF)-β1 also suppresses the proliferation of epithelial cells and stimulates synthesis of some caspases. Ultimately, epithelial cells are eliminated through apoptotic cell death. The study concludes that (TGF)-β1 antagonists help by preventing morphological changes as well as promoting the elongation of hair follicles. (Hibino & Nishiyama, 2004)
There is significant evidence showing how taurine is linked to (TGF)-β1 and can be used in treatment of hair loss. One study on taurine deficiency further supports the link between taurine and (TGF)-β1 (Hagiwara et al., 2014) while another study shows that taurine inhibits the expression of procollagen type I and type III in lung fibrosis, once again linking taurine to (TGF)-β1. (Gurujeyalakshmi, Hollinger & Giri, 1998)
Another study on taurine supplementation in the treatment of women with hair fragility shows the potential benefits of a systematic taurine supplementation; the study was conducted on 20 women with ages between 20 to 68 years who had fine hair and decreased hair thickness and shows that daily oral intake of taurine 150mg, Catechin 75mg and Zinc 15mg is beneficial to hair health. 11/12 women showed increased hair diameter from 0,040 to 0,045 μm while 6 other women showed an increase from 0,040 to 0,043 μm. (Tosti et al., 2007)
Natural Taurine Sources
Considering how many benefits taurine has to humans, it’s only logical to look into ways to supplement our taurine intake every day. Fortunately, besides oral supplements, there is a plethora of options for those who simply want to increase their taurine intake naturally.
A paper in 2009 (Oktawia et al.) reviewed taurine content of various foods and the most rich in taurine are:

beef
chicken
turkey
veal
pork loin
lamb
ham.

Seafood is also extremely rich in taurine with clams, octopus, scallop, squid and white fish being the most taurine rich foods. Taurine cannot be found in plants except sea algae so vegetarians and vegans should consider monitoring their taurine levels and take supplements if needed.
Energy drinks contain a very high amount of taurine (between 1000mg to 3000mg) as well as high caffeine content. However, it’s unknown whether the high caffeine content may have detrimental effects on health.
Numerous studies indicate that taurine has tremendous benefits for our overall health. While some of the studies have led to revolutionary treatments in certain areas such as proposing it as adjuvant treatment for cardiovascular disease, a specific treatment model for hair loss that incorporates taurine hasn’t been furthered yet. Although there isn’t sufficient data showing that taurine by itself cannot cure hair loss, it is an essential discovery that may pave the path for further hair loss treatments.

References

Georgia B. Schuller-Levis, Eunkyue Park, Taurine: new implications for an old amino acid, FEMS Microbiology Letters Sep 2003, 226 (2) 195-202; DOI: 10.1016/S0378-1097(03)00611-6 Link: http://femsle.oxfordjournals.org/content/226/2/195
Frye, R. E., Rossignol, D., Casanova, M. F., Brown, G. L., Martin, V., Edelson, S., … Adams, J. B. (2013). A Review of Traditional and Novel Treatments for Seizures in Autism Spectrum Disorder: Findings from a Systematic Review and Expert Panel. Frontiers in Public Health, 1, 31. http://doi.org/10.3389/fpubh.2013.00031
Abdeslem El Idrissi , Evelyn Okeke, Xin Yan, Francoise Sidime, Lorenz S. Neuwirth, Taurine Regulation of Blood Pressure and Vasoactivity, Volume 775 of the series Advances in Experimental Medicine and Biology pp 407-425, 10 January 2013 Link: http://link.springer.com/chapter/10.1007%2F978-1-4614-6130-2_31
Wójcik, O. P., Koenig, K. L., Zeleniuch-Jacquotte, A., Costa, M., & Chen, Y. (2010). The potential protective effects of taurine on coronary heart disease. Atherosclerosis, 208(1), 19. http://doi.org/10.1016/j.atherosclerosis.2009.06.002
Wójcik, O. P., Koenig, K. L., Zeleniuch-Jacquotte, A., Pearte, C., Costa, M., & Chen, Y. (2013). Serum taurine and risk of coronary heart disease: a prospective, nested case-control study. European Journal of Nutrition, 52(1), 169–178. http://doi.org/10.1007/s00394-011-0300-6
Ghanizadeh, A. (2013). Increased Glutamate and Homocysteine and Decreased Glutamine Levels in Autism: A Review and Strategies for Future Studies of Amino Acids in Autism. Disease Markers, 35(5), 281–286. http://doi.org/10.1155/2013/536521
R. Seidl, A. Peyrl, R. Nicham, E. Hauser, Taurine and caffeine-containing drink stimulates cognitive performance and well-being, Amino Acids 19(3-4):635-42 · February 2000 Link: http://link.springer.com/article/10.1007/s007260070013
Xu, Y.-J., Arneja, A. S., Tappia, P. S., & Dhalla, N. S. (2008). The potential health benefits of taurine in cardiovascular disease. Experimental & Clinical Cardiology, 13(2), 57–65.Link: http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC2586397/
Hyemin Kim, Hyunsook Chang, Dong-Hee Lee, Simulative Evaluation of Taurine Against Alopecia Caused by Stress in Caenorhabditis elegans, 2013, Volume 776 of the series Advances in Experimental Medicine and Biology pp 267-276, Link: http://link.springer.com/chapter/10.1007%2F978-1-4614-6093-0_25
Collin, C., Gautier, B., Gaillard, O., Hallegot, P., Chabane, S., Bastien, P., Peyron, M., Bouleau, M., Thibaut, S., Pruche, F., Duranton, A. and Bernard, B. A. (2006), Protective effects of taurine on human hair follicle grown in vitro. International Journal of Cosmetic Science, 28: 289–298. doi: 10.1111/j.1467-2494.2006.00334.x Link: http://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/10.1111/j.1467-2494.2006.00334.x/abstract
Kim BS, Spinner DS, Kascsak RJ, Park SY, Cho IS, Schuller-Levis G, Park E., Inflammatory mediators are inhibited by a taurine metabolite in CpG oligodeoxynucleotide and IFN-r activated macrophage cell line. J Drugs Dermatol. 2013 May;12(5):551-7. Link: http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/23652950
Hibino, Toshihiko et al.,Role of TGF-β2 in the human hair cycle, Journal of Dermatological Science , Volume 35 , Issue 1 , 9 – 18, Link: https://secure.jbs.elsevierhealth.com/action/showCitFormats?pii=S0923-1811%2803%2900270-6&doi=10.1016%2Fj.jdermsci.2003.12.003&code=desc-site
Hagiwara, A., Ishizaki, S., Takehana, K., Fujitani, S., Sonaka, I., Satsu, H., & Shimizu, M. (2014). Branched-chain amino acids inhibit the TGF-beta-induced down-regulation of taurine biosynthetic enzyme cysteine dioxygenase in HepG2 cells. Amino Acids, 46(5), 1275–1283. http://doi.org/10.1007/s00726-014-1693-3
G. Gurujeyalakshmi, M. A. Hollinger, and S. N. Giri “Regulation of Transforming Growth Factor- β1 mRNA Expression by Taurine and Niacin in the Bleomycin Hamster Model of Lung Fibrosis”,American Journal of Respiratory Cell and Molecular Biology, Vol. 18, No. 3 (1998), pp. 334-342.doi: 10.1165/ajrcmb.18.3.2867 Link: http://www.atsjournals.org/doi/abs/10.1165/ajrcmb.18.3.2867?url_ver=Z39.88-2003&rfr_id=ori%3Arid%3Acrossref.org&rfr_dat=cr_pub%3Dpubmed&#.V3nfK_l97IU
Tosti, Antonella; Vincenzi, Colombina; Starace, Michela; Pazzaglia, Massimiliano; Department of Dermatology University of Bologna, Bologna, Italy Oral Supplementation With Taurine in the Treatment of Women With Hair Fragility Link: http://nahrs.org/Portals/0/meetings_support/abstracts_5th_congress/Final_Program_from_Bristol_pt6.pdf

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